Learning Through Classical and Operant Conditioning to...

Learning can be defined as an experience that causes a relatively permanent change in an organism. There are two broad types of learning, classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning has to do with associating a stimulus with a response and this was promoted by Ivan Pavlov. Operant conditioning has to do with the consequences of a behavior determining its future occurrence and was promoted by B. F. Skinner (Schater, Gilbert, Wegner, 2011). Each psychologist has examples of what they developed, but many other examples can be found in everyday life. In classical conditioning there are four different associations; the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. An†¦show more content†¦In operant conditioning trainers will use reinforcement and punishment as outcomes to increase or decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it. An example of Skinner’s is when he put rats in â€Å"opera nt chambers† that contained a lever for the rat to manipulate. If they pressed the lever at the right time they would be rewarded with food, and if pressed at the wrong time they could be punished with electrocution. There are many behaviors a trainer could teach because there are many options for reinforcement and punishment, and they could be done in different time intervals (Schater, Gilbert, Wegner, 2011). There are also positive and negative reinforcements and punishments. A positive reinforcement would be adding something such as food and a negative reinforcement would be subtracting something such as using sunscreen so that you avoid getting sunburnt. A positive punishment would be adding something such as a shock and a negative punishment would be taking something away such as a toy from a child when in trouble. An example of operant conditioning in my life is when I was younger and would talk back to my mom. If she told me to do something and I talked back she would e ither spank me or put me in time out. Getting spanked would be an example of a positiveShow MoreRelatedClassical Conditioning Vs. Operant Conditioning Essay1088 Words   |  5 Pages 1. a) Define Classical Conditioning and Behaviorism. b) Identify the two major characteristics that distinguish classical conditioning from operant conditioning. Classical Conditioning is a type of learning process of an individual when they come in contact with certain stimuli. According to Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, he developed several experiments on learning and he discovered that classical condition is the basic form of learning for an individual. However, according to Pavlov, behaviorismRead MoreClassical Vs. Classical Conditioning1295 Words   |  6 Pages Classical Conditioning Behaviorism Classical conditioning is a type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another. It can also be known as respondent conditioning. The stimulus is any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds. The components of classical conditioning are as follows: Unconditioned response (UR) which is a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning. Unconditioned Stimulus (US)Read More The Science of Psychology Essay1078 Words   |  5 Pages learning is behaviorism. Behaviorism was a movement in psychology and philosophy that emphasized the outward behavioral aspects of thought and dismissed the inward experiential aspects. It was proposed in 1913 by John B. Watson, who is known as the founder of behaviorism. Behaviorists are mainly concerned with the manner in which organisms learn or modify their behavior on the basis of the environment. They have defined learning as â€Å"a relatively permanent change inRead MoreEssay about Psychology: Classical Conditioning1146 Words   |  5 PagesBEHAVIORISM Classical conditioning is a type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another. It can also be known as respondent conditioning. The stimulus is any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds. The components of classical conditioning are as follows: Unconditioned response (UR) which is a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) which elicits a specific unconditionedRead MoreLearning Theories, Behaviorism And Social Cognitive Theory1216 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Learning is a complex process that influences the knowledge and behaviours that humans do, or do not develop to adapt to a variety of situations (Ormrod, 2016). However, for people with disability, this learning process can often be hindered by the lack of abilities, or external and internal stimuli such as prejudice and self-efficacy respectively (Conyers, Enright, Strauser, 1998). The following essay will discuss two learning theories, behaviourism and social cognitive theory (SCT)Read MoreBehaviorism : A Psychological Approach2941 Words   |  12 Pagesfounded by Watson. It was basically based on the assumption or belief that it is possible to change, train and measure behaviors (Drisoll, 2000). Behaviorism is a psychological school of thought that was established when Watson published his classic paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It (1913). The terms behaviorism is, therefore, that psychological perspective whose its explanations about learning are actually based on the relationship that exists between the events in the environment andRead MoreThe Theory Of Classical Conditioning1163 Words   |  5 Pages Classical conditioning is based on an association between two stimuli and implies that we as organisms are rather passive in the learning process. Operant conditioning is based on a response and stimuli (i.e., consequences) that follow that response. Operant implies that organisms operate on the environment to produce consequences we anticipate based on previous active learning. Classical conditioning, the association between two stimuli is easily demonstrated in the media. For exampleRead MoreLearning - Questions1852 Words   |  8 PagesChapter 5 Learning 1. Experience causes learning if it results in a a. cognitive understanding of what has changed. b. internal changes in the organism which may or may not be detectable. c. relatively permanent change in behaviour, capability or attitude. d. maturation of the targeted area. The term learning applies to behaviour changes a. that are relatively permanent. b. that result from maturation. c. stemming from fatigue, drugs or illness. d. that are temporary. Which behaviours are consideredRead MoreA Critique of the Behavioural Theories of Learning4629 Words   |  19 PagesBEHAVIOURAL THEORIES OF LEARNING One of the most debated issues in psychology pertains to the nature and meaning of learning. The systematic study of learning is relatively new as it was in the late nineteenth century that studies in this realm began in a scientific manner. Psychologists borrowed techniques from the physical sciences, and conducted experiments to understand how people and animals learn. Psychologists have tried in the past to define and explain how learning takes place. Two ofRead MoreA Critique of the Behavioural Theories of Learning4640 Words   |  19 PagesBEHAVIOURAL THEORIES OF LEARNING One of the most debated issues in psychology pertains to the nature and meaning of learning. The systematic study of learning is relatively new as it was in the late nineteenth century that studies in this realm began in a scientific manner. Psychologists borrowed techniques from the physical sciences, and conducted experiments to understand how people and animals learn. Psychologists have tried in the past to define and explain how learning takes place. Two of

The Nature And Moral Significance Of Disgust - 1217 Words

What is one vital concept that drives the existence of humans in society? Every moment of every day humans experience a phenomenon that has grasped the interest of psychologists and philosophers alike. This perplexing notion is the manifestation of emotions. There are hundreds of emotions that one can experience, but one in particular has caused a debate. The emotion of disgust has induced a plethora of theories attempting to explain the following normative question: Should disgust influence one’s considered moral judgments? On one side, the advocates state that disgust influences a person’s moral judgments. On the other hand, the skeptics doubt the power that disgust has on a one’s considered moral judgments. A philosopher named Daniel Kelly reflects on this particular discourse in his novel â€Å"Yuck: The Nature and Moral Significance of Disgust† and defends the idea that disgust does not impact a person’s considered moral judgments. In order to support this position, Kelly expresses his opposition to multiple theories, such as the Deep Wisdom Theory and Terror Management Theory, and utilizes the Entanglement Thesis and the Co-Opt Thesis to substantiate his claim. To begin, it is crucial to understand the controversy between the disgust advocates and disgust skeptics before presenting Kelly’s own position on the issue. Overall, advocates propose that an emotion, such as disgust, is a mechanism adequate enough to direct one’s moral evaluations. Disgust advocates support theShow MoreRelatedEssay on Comparative Study of Frankenstein and Blade Runner1449 Words   |  6 Pagesovertake and disrupt nature and its processes. The disastrous implications of overreaching the boundary between progressive and destructive power and knowledge are heeded through the ultimate and inevitable loss of self and identity, transforming humanity into a form of monstrosity. Shelley heeds the destructive thirst for knowledge in the pursuit of superiority, foreshadowing the moral ramifications as a result of this unnatural intervention and disruption of both the physical nature and the innateRead MoreLord Of The Flies By William Golding1297 Words   |  6 Pagesenvelope of objects and colours, a unique impression which can change a person s emotions, and a small glimpse into the book itself. The cover of the book, â€Å"Lord of the Flies†, gains the attention of the reader and compels them to determine the significance of the book. The book cover contains a single obscure and disturbing image and the book’s title. The title of the story, â€Å"Lord of the Flies†, is synonymous with Satan or the devil in mythological writing. The image appears to have a pig with itsRead MoreCreons Demonstrations of a Tragic Flaw in Sophocles’ Antigone705 Words   |  3 Pagescharacter, able to create a character that can be accurately and easily identified as the significant tragic character in the play. Despite the title of the tragedy, Creon undoubtedly provides greater moral significance and can capture the audience’s attention as the central character. Creon’s significance is clear as he is the successor to Oedipus’ throne in Thebes. His status as king makes him renowned and prosperous. Initially, Creon restrains his respect for his s ubjects, however, it is clear toRead MoreThe Significance of the Black Rose in Fragrance of Roses by Peter Carey1092 Words   |  5 PagesThe significance of the black rose in Fragrance of Roses by Peter Carey The locals will now tell you that when they visited the old mans glasshouse, they discovered the most beautiful rose that anyone could ever dream of. It was twice the size of a mans fist and was almost black in colour, with just the faintest hint of red in its velvety petals. Fragrance of Roses is about a pitiful foreign old man who had lived in a poor village for twenty-five years. His only work was breeding rosesRead More Claudius as Evil in Hamlet by William Shakespeare Essay990 Words   |  4 Pagesmodern times, evil has become an entirely ambiguous term. Who is evil? What is evil? Men like Adolph Hitler and Saddam Hussein have been garnered with the term ‘evil’ for their atrocities against fellow humans. Now it seems evil has a solely human significance; when a person violates the individual rights of others on a massive scale, he/she is evil. In Shakespeare’s time – the Elizabethan era – evil had a similar, but somewhat altered connotation in the human mind. Evil was an entity that violated theRead MoreClaudius as Evil in Hamlet by William Shakespeare Essay1029 Words   |  5 Pagesmodern times, evil has become an entirely ambiguous term. Who is evil? What is evil? Men like Adolph Hitler and Saddam Hussein have be en garnered with the term ‘evil for their atrocities against fellow humans. Now it seems evil has a solely human significance; when a person violates the individual rights of others on a massive scale, he/she is evil. In Shakespeares time Ââ€" the Elizabethan era Ââ€" evil had a similar, but somewhat altered connotation in the human mind. Evil was an entity that violated theRead MoreEssay about Creon Defines the Tragic Hero in Sophocles Antigone762 Words   |  4 PagesAntigone, Creon is the main character and he provides the moral significance in the play. First, Creon withholds the respect of his citizens but it is clear to them he is not perfect through his pride (tragic flaw). 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Comparative Study Of Styles And Patterns Of Code Switching Free Essays

Code-switching is known as the switch from one codification ( linguistic communication ) to another within the same context. It is besides known as a state of affairs where a individual is able to jump between two or more linguistic communications in his or her discourse. In her book, Myers-Scotton ( 1993 ) said that code-switching is a conventional method of communicating in any bilingual or multilingual society. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparative Study Of Styles And Patterns Of Code Switching or any similar topic only for you Order Now Hence, in a multilingual state like Malaysia, it is customary for us to see a merger of one or more linguistic communications, idioms and manners in spoken and besides written signifiers. The promotion of the epoch of multimedia and engineering agencies that code-switching is no longer restricted to talk signifier but it can be observed in written signifier excessively. With a more developed communicating system, code-switching can be observed in changing interaction such as chat rooms, forums, web logs and web sites like Myspace, Friendster and Facebook. ( Montes-Alcala , 2007 ) . Therefore, different forms and manners of code-switching are emerging and people code-switch more frequently in written signifier of linguistic communications and this includes one of the ill-famed medium, web log. Blood ( 2000 ) and Werbach ( 2001 ) stated that John Barger was the first individual who came about with the term â€Å" weblog † in his web site on 17th December 1997 where the term was used to mention to a web site where an single updates on a regular basis ( Branum, 2001 ) . With the tendency of having a web log traveling ballyhoo over the state in recent old ages, we can somehow notice in each web log, code-switching in different spheres takes topographic point. These switches in term of forms and manners differ from people of each age group. Problem Statement Sometimes, it crosses our head to utilize merely English as our manner of communicating but under certain fortunes, we tend to code-switch accidentally. This state of affairs happens particularly in a multilingual society. There are times when we realize that merely the usage of certain codification in a peculiar sphere can do linguistic communication meaningful. Over the old ages, in our state, we frequently face the quandary of taking the ‘appropriate ‘ codification to do a linguistic communication meaningful in different spheres. The codification or linguistic communication choice is dependent on the communicator ‘s age group every bit good. Sometimes, it confuses us whether or non a individual of a peculiar age group web logs utilizing same or different manners and forms of code-switching in web logs every bit good as the critical parts that domains play in finding which codification to take to exchange to. Significance of Study Montes-Alcala ( 2007 ) noted in the yesteryear, there have been a batch of researches done on code-switching in spoken signifier but merely a minority of research workers focus their findings in written signifier. Hence, she conducted a survey on code-switching in the web logs of English-Spanish bilinguals to happen out the frequence of code-switching within their web log entries. Similarly, in our state, a figure of surveies on code-switching have been done on spoken discourses but so far, merely a minority of researches has been carried out to analyze code-switching in web logs in Malaysia. Therefore, this survey is important because it provides a new comprehensiveness for code-switching in written discourse by integrating the usage of CS in web logs. The ground is because different manners of communicating on the cyberspace such as confabs, web logs and chirrups are quickly catching traditional signifiers of communicating for both professional and leisure activities ( Norizah A ; Azirah, 2009 ) . Therefore, surveies on CS in written signifier should be taken into history. Aims This survey aims to look into the ground why a individual code-switch from one chosen standardized linguistic communication, English, to another in his or her web log, taking into history bloggers of different age groups. At the same clip, it besides serves to find in which spheres do these bloggers tends to code-switch the most every bit good as their manners and forms of code-switch. Simultaneously, it besides focuses on the factors that initiate and act upon code-switching in their web logs every bit good as the grounds why they chose a specific linguistic communication to code-switch to from English, for illustration, from English to Mandarin or from English to Malay. Scopes of Study This survey focuses on code-switching which involves more than two linguistic communications in the most sought-after on-line diary, web log. It focuses on bloggers from two age groups and how the bloggers from this age group web log, taking into consideration the frequence of code-switching within selected entries. Furthermore, different forms and manners they use in different spheres while blogging are highlighted. Restriction of Study The country of survey for this research is restricted to those bloggers who use merely English as their chief medium of blogging over a declared period of clip. Merely five bloggers of two different age groups will be selected to take part in this research. Group 1 – 20 to 30 old ages old Group 2 – 50 to 60 old ages old In add-on, merely bloggers from an English instruction background will take part in this research. However, the Numberss of bloggers selected to take part in this research do non stand for the whole. Theoretical Model This survey is guided by the old work from assorted research workers such as Montes-Alcala ( 2005 A ; 2007 ) and Norizah and Azirah ( 2009 ) in their surveies of the code-switching in written discourses. Research Questions What are the spheres and grounds that influence the bloggers of different age groups to code-switch? What are the differences in the forms and manners of code-switching between bloggers of these two different age groups? Literature Review Blom and Gumperz are considered the innovator research workers in code-switching as they did an early survey in the twelvemonth 1972 on the linguistic communication used in a Norse fishing small town through observation and analysis of tape recordings of the society. Through that, they discovered the society used and code-switched in several different linguistic communications when they were pass oning to each other. As the affair of fact, it was dependent on who the talker was turn toing to every bit good as the sphere both addresser and addressee was in. On the other manus, Valdes-Fallis ( 1976 ) , Poplack ( 1981 ) , McClure ( 1981 ) and Gumperz ( 1982 ) in the article, â€Å" Blogging in two linguistic communications: Code-Switching in Bilingual Blogs, † introduced the categorizations of code-switching maps – direct citations, accent, elucidation or amplification, contextual switches, lexical demand switches, triggered switches and others in support of the grounds why people code-switch. Montes-Alcala ‘s ( 2000 ) research merely to happen out that that most of those maps typically manifested in the literature of unwritten code-switching were besides present in the written signifier. Hence, it explains why she did a survey on code-switching jumping between English and Spanish in web logs. Research Design Qualitative method is chosen as the design as it is able to supply factual informations needed to back up the theory that linguistic communication does transform. On the other manus, with qualitative method, a comparative survey on the manners and forms of code-switching in two different age groups in selected spheres can be reasoned with the presence of sufficient informations. Data will be obtained through analysis of web logs to find the spheres of code-switching in selected entries. In add-on to that, a set of questionnaire will be distributed to the selected bloggers to get information of their backgrounds and experiences in blogging. The ground is to acquire to cognize the grounds why they want to code-switch and besides if there is any cause that influences them to code-switch from English to another linguistic communication, be it Mandarin, Malay or others. Subjects For this survey a entire Numberss of five bloggers from each age group as stated below are selected to take part in it: Group 1 – 20 to 30 old ages old Group 2 – 50to 60 old ages old These bloggers have to be bi- or multilingual in order to be selected, maintaining in head that English must be their chief medium of blogging. Lone entries with existent code-switching for illustration, alternation of different linguistic communications within the same entry are considered entries without incorporation of other linguistic communications is non considered as code-switching. The ground of restricting the range of the survey is to put a criterion and besides to homogenise the findings so that the informations collected can be more precise to peculiar age groups being studied. Data Collection The continuance for informations aggregation of this survey runs from September 2009 to March 2010. Therefore, in the period of six months, the entries posted by these 10 bloggers will be selected indiscriminately and analyzed, foregrounding the differences in forms and manners of code-switching in different spheres. At the same clip, questionnaires with consent signifiers will be distributed to these bloggers in the hope of happening the grounds why they code-switch from English to other linguistic communications and besides to detect the frequence of code-switching among them. Datas Analysis The information in this survey is analysed by utilizing the work of Montes-Alcala ( 2000 ) as a guideline. The spheres of which code-switching takes topographic point are noted from the entries of web logs collected. Then, the frequence of code-switching will be tabulated before analysis of findings. On the other manus, the distributed questionnaires will help in happening out under what fortunes or spheres does the bloggers code-switch? Thereafter, these spheres will be categorized and account for code-switching in each sphere will be included. Finally, a comparing of differences in manners and forms of code-switching among these bloggers will be drawn and analyzed. How to cite Comparative Study Of Styles And Patterns Of Code Switching, Essay examples

Solar System free essay sample

Advantages of and Problems with Solar Energy by Ethan Goffman I’d put my money on the sun and solar energy. What a source of power! I hope we don’t have to wait until oil and coal run out before we tackle that. – Thomas Alva Edison, 1931 The oil embargo of the 1970s prompted a national surge of interest in solar energy. A solar water heater was installed in the White House, and photovoltaic panels first came into play, notably in California. While previously solar power as a direct source of electricity had been limited to esoteric functions, such as in spacecraft, companies began to form with the idea of using solar as a regular source of power for ordinary homes. Theoretically, solar might seem an ideal energy source, as it is free and virtually limitless. According to Greenpeace, ? The solar radiation reaching the earth‘s surface in one year provides more than 10,000 times the world‘s yearly energy needs? (4). Furthermore, ? harnessing just one-quarter of the solar energy that falls on the worlds paved areas could meet all current global energy needs comfortably? Flavin). Yet the technological barriers to harvesting this energy are great regarding collection, distribution, and storage. President Carter inspecting a solar heating panel installed on the roof of the White House. Photo: Jimmy Carter Library. http://www. aip. org/history/newsletter/fall2003/carterphoto. htm Through the end of the 20th century, solar remained a power source for the eccentric few, accounting for well under 1% of energy generation. As the energy crisis waned, it quickly became apparent that solar was not competitive with conventional energy sources, such as coal. One commentator well captures the frustration: ? For years, supporters of solar power have heralded every new technical breakthrough as a revolution in the making. Yet time and again it has failed to materialise, largely because the technology was too expensive and inefficient. It simply cost too much, and solar panels settled in as a small niche market? (Daviss). Â ©2008 ProQuest Released December 2008 1 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? This Bethesda, MD home has photovoltaic panels in front and solar collectors in the rear for heating the family’s water. Photos by author. In the 1990s, as climate change moved in the public consciousness from an esoteric theory to a scientific fact, interest in solar returned, notably in Europe and to a lesser extent in the United States. In the 21st century, growing worries about an energy shortage on a planet voracious for power have added to the demands for solar energy. As Greenpeace points out, ? the market has grown by more than 40% a year for almost a decade and the industry is investing large sums to increase production facilities? (3). Buildings connected to the electrical grid may use conventional energy when needed, while employing solar cells when the sun is out and the energy is available. In many locations, solar energy may actually be fed back into the electrical grid, causing the meter to run backwards, a phenomenon known as net metering. Yet, ? For many years the utilities did not allow the feeding in of solar electricity into their grid and . . . in most countries the utilities fight this idea forcefully once it comes up? (Greenpeace 48). In many locations, then, returning energy to the grid is not yet possible. Monocrystalline solar panel http://skycomsmt. om/images/ SOLAR%20PRODUCTION/11724 94779. jpg On top of net metering, solar advocates would like policies tied to the changing value of energy depending on time of day. This is known as demand pricing, and ? requires a meter that can track hourly as well as total usage, differentiating between peak and off-peak consumption? (Derbyshire). Because solar is strongest during day-time, peak hours, it is more valuable than a flat rate would indicate; yet, in many countries, those who invest in solar panels are not re- Net metering lets your meter run backwards http://solar. calfinder. com/blog/solar-information/what-iswarded for this value. Travis Bradford net-metering/ advocates variable pricing, which ? would charge consumers for electricity based on a variety of factors, including the amount of power the customer uses, the time of day they use it, and customer density? (149). ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 4 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? Two major factors have hamstrung the use of photovoltaic cells for generating energy: cost and intermittency. Except in special situations, such as off-grid uses, solar is simply not competitive with fossil fuels. Explains Time magazine, ? stiff up-front cost has always been the biggest barrier to residential use of solar power. An average set of rooftop panels costs $20,000 to $30,000 and takes 10 to 15 years to produce enough electricity to pay for itself? (Walsh). On a larger scale, this amounts to solar being ? at least two to three times as expensive as the typical electricity generated in America for retail customers? (Economist, Bright). Still this is changing due to experimentation, in combination with practical application. According to the Economist, ? decades of research have improved the efficiency of ilicon-based solar cells from 6% to an average of 15% today, whereas improvements in manufacturing have reduced the price of modules from about $200 per watt in the 1950s to $2. 70 in 2004. Within three to eight years, many in the industry expect the price of solar power to be costcompetitive with electricity from the grid? (Economist, Bright). This PV array has one onlooker gazing up ward in awe. 2007 Solar Decathlon, Washington, DC. Photo by author. Although growth has been steady, a worldwide silicon shortage has frustrated expectations for an even faster rate by raising cost: ? fter decades of steady decline, prices increased from a low of $2. 70 per watt in 2004 to about $4 per watt in the spring of 2006? (Economist, Bright). Nevertheless, other factors have kept the situation in check: ? Thanks to economies of scale, rising conversion efficiencies, and more-efficient use of polysilicon in conventional cells, average PV module prices declined in 2007, even as polysilicon prices rose? (Sawin). Still the shortage of refined polysilicon, due to a lack of facilities, has kept prices high. This seems puzzling, as silicon is one of the most abundant materials, found, for instance, in sand. As Greenpeace explains, ? 23% of the earth‘s crust consists of silicon. However, the process of producing the pure silicon needed for crystalline solar cells is complex. The period from planning a new silicon factory to its first output is approximately two years. The dynamic development of the PV market led to a shortage of silicon? (13). Competition from computer chip makers, which also use silicon, has added to the excess of demand over supply. Still, various projections claim ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? that the worldwide shortage should end in 2009, as production ramps up. For instance, ? The European Photovoltaic Industry Association projects 80,000 tons of annual production by 2010, up from just over 37,000 tons in 2007? (Sawin). Improved technology, increased silicon production, and the increasing cost of energy are acting to make photovoltaic cells more competi tive. At some point, solar should start to out-compete fossil fuels. As solar power becomes more efficient, it is becoming more competitive. The company SunPower is notable here, ? onverting 22 percent of the suns rays to electricity, compared with industry norms of about 10 to 15 percent? (Wolgemuth). Still the cost for SunPower cells is high; just what mix of cost and efficiency will dominate the industry remains to be seen. Thin Film An alternative to polysilicon solar cells is thin film, which uses metallic compounds to capture the sun‘s energy. Cheaper and easier to install than wafer based PV cells, ? thin- film cells use as little as 1 per cent of the volume of materials that ordinary PV cells demand? (Daviss). Installation is also flexible, since thin film ? an be integrated into roof shingles, siding, and the windows of buildings? (Sawin). Many in the industry, then, see thin film Thin film solar panels technology as the future of solar: ? Today, http://technicalstudi es. youngester. com/2008/06/futurethin-film PV modules that use materials of-solar-cells. html such as amorphous silicon (a-Si); cadmium telluride (CdTe); or copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) are attracting much attention and are growing at an impressive rate? (Energy Information Administration 10). However, thin film as of yet captures a smaller percentage of the sun‘s energy than do wafer based cells. Overall, ? thin-film solar cells are inefficient but cheap. Where theres room to put up a lot of them, theyre cost effective, but to compete elsewhere, theyll have to get more efficient? (Takahashi). Still thin film efficiency is rapidly increasing. According to one report, ? thin-film technology has now reached a critical mass and is poised to start taking ? significant market share‘ from incumbent technology. Thin-film silicon technologies from turn-key vendors will be ramping up in large scale during the second half of 2008? (Solid State). Numerous experiments with the best combination of thin film materials make it likely that efficiency will increase significantly in coming years. In one test thin film technology reached 19. 9% (NREL, Thin) although how quickly and easily this material can be manufactured for mass consumption remains to be seen. ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 6 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? Disadvantages of Solar Cells A major disadvantage of both wafer-based and thin film solar energy is intermittency. The sun does not shine at night, and is diminished by overcast skies and storms. Energy from solar cells therefore cannot be counted on at all times. This means that decentralized energy from solar cells cannot supply what the energy industry calls baseline power, which supplies a constant energy need. Currently coal plants are the major supplier of base-load electricity, while nuclear is also excellent at this task (although expensive to bring on-line). For peak demand times, as well as sudden surges (such as during a heat wave when air conditioners work overtime) power must be added. The energy needed for this part-time demand is called ? intermediate-load electricity, as opposed to the base-load electricity that is needed twenty-four hours a day? (Bradford 13). Natural gas is currently the favorite method for supplying intermediate-load electricity, although renewable sources, such as solar and wind, are well suited to the task. Intermittency is actually less of a problem for solar cells than for wind power. This is because solar tends to be most available during times of peak demand, particularly working hours: Intermediate load power, ? hich represents some 30 percent of all the electricity supply? must be provided primarily during daylight hours. (Bradford 130) This is fortuitous for solar energy, since, ? in the middle of the afternoon when the sun is at its peak and solar panels are producing at their optimum, demand and pricing for electricity also peaks? (Canberra Times). In addition, solar and wind can complement each other, since times of low sunshine a re often excellent for wind power, notably in winter. Still, the use of solar cells and wind power will be limited until more efficient storage methods can be eveloped to conserve energy when it‘s generated and use it when it‘s most needed. Bradford explains that ? there are potential technical limits to widespread adoption of intermittent sources of electricity beyond 15 percent of total grid capacity without the added inclusion of energy storage solutions? (132) (other recent studies put the number at 20% for wind power). Currently, batteries are the method of choice for storing solar energy, although these need to be replaced regularly. Solid oxide fuel cells employing hydrogen technology show great promise, but need to be further developed (see http://www. sa. com/discoveryguides/fuecel/overview. php). For hydrogen storage to fulfill its promise it needs to derive its power from nonpolluting sources, such as electrolysis powered by solar energy. (Bradford 87-88) (see http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/hydrogen/overview. php). ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 7 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? Solar Thermal Although photovoltaic panels have become the prototypical image of solar power, solar thermal is actually older. Leonardo Da Vinci had solar energy designs in his notebooks, while ? n the 1870s and 1880s, at the height of the Industrial Revolution, French and U. S. scientists developed an array of solar cookers, steam engines, and electricity generators, all based on a simple concept, a parabolic-shaped solar collector that is coated with a mirrored surface to reflect light coming from different angles onto a single point or line? (Flavin USA Today). That design is the basis of many of today‘s large-scale solar plants, which rely on parabolic troughs. US President George W. Bush (R) walks past a parabolic dish during a tour of he Department of Energys National Sol ar Thermal Test Facility at Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, NM. AFP or Agence France-Presse, 2005 Solar thermal, unlike solar cells, employs glass or other material to concentrate light and convert it to a source of electricity. In general, solar cells are used as a decentralized source of power, often on individual houses. Solar thermal, by contrast, is being developed in large, centralized power plants: ? The technology which is generally proposed for harvesting solar energy at large scales in the Sunbelt is Concentrated Solar Power (CSP). This method concentrates the suns rays to heat water, producing steam which drives turbines to generate electricity in an otherwise conventional way? (Al Bawaba). Parabolic troughs are currently the standard form of solar thermal used in large power plants. They consist of ? long parabolic-shaped rows of mirrors focus sunlight on fluid-filled metal tubes encased in glass. The heat collected drives steam generators similar to those that run coal-fired power plants to make electricity? (Woodside). Explains CSP entrepreneur Randy Gee, ? here is a great deal of interest from the investment community because parabolic trough is a proven commodity? (Power Engineering). Research continues apace, not only in parabolic troughs but in other ways of providing solar thermal. CSP has the huge advantage of storing energy, via molten salt (NREL, Trough), greatly alleviating the intermittency problem and allowing it to be used as a baseline energy source. Explains Gee, ? CSP is positioned to be the largest means of generating renewable electricity in the 10-15 ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? year timeframe. . . . CSP systems can provide despatchable [sic] electricity, meaning they can deliver the electricity to the utility or customers wherever it is needed by virtue of the fact that CSP is a thermal technology and can therefore can [sic] incorporate thermal storage. This is what separates it from wind and photovoltaics? (Power Engineering). Solar thermal plants are particularly apt in sunny climates such as the American Southwest. According to one source, ? at least 250,000 square miles of land in the Southwest alone are suitable for constructing solar power plants . . . Converting only 2. 5 percent of that radiation into electricity would Spanish solar-power-plant developer Abengoa Solar plans to build match the nations total energy and begin operating this 280-megawatt solar thermal power plant in Gila Bend, AZ, by 2011. consumption in 2006? (Zweibel). http://www. technologyreview. com/Biztech/20356/page2/ The Nevada Solar One solar thermal plant, which came online in 2007, is a notable example. Its ? 64 megawatts (MW) capacity makes it the largest solar plant to be built in the world in the last 16 years? (Energy Information Administration 6). Still, in the American Southwest plans for solar thermal are slowing due to a 22 month moratorium on solar collector applications from the federal Bureau of Land Management to study environmental impact. (Economist, Freezing) This conflicting environmental claim illustrates one of the many obstacles and diversions in renewable energy‘s path becoming a dominant power source. Critics claim that solar takes too much land to be viable as a large-scale energy source (Hiserodt). Clearly, moving to solar as a major energy producer would mean an enormous reallocation of land and resource use. Yet, according to one source, ? installations already in place indicate that the land required for each gigawatt-hour of solar energy produced in the Southwest is less than that needed for a coal-powered plant when factoring in land for coal mining? (Zweibel). Estimates are tricky, because they need to account for all the land and installations needed for any given power source, as well as environmental problems and the cost of transportation and storage. One problem with concentrated solar in the southwest is distance from where energy is produced to where it is most needed. One expert explains that ? major obstacles such as long-life storage and long distance transportation remain to be overcome before solar power becomes a major contributor to the world energy grid? (Al Bawaba). Major infrastructure investment would be ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 9 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? needed. According to one advocate, ? a new high-voltage, direct-current (HVDC) power transmission backbone would have to be built? using Direct Current. Zweibel) Certainly the initial price would be high, although once energy did begin flowing it would be close to free. If the obstacles can be overcome, according to one report, ? concentrating solar power, which always works on a utility scale, could provide seven times of all of Americas power needs. This expands on a prediction green advocates have made for years, arguing that, potentially, all of the countrys power needs could be met in a 100-squa re-mile plot of land in a sunny region like Nevada? (Woodside). One decentralized form of solar thermal that has been around a long time is solar water heaters. Currently, these are a better investment for individual houses than are solar cells; they pay for themselves in about 15 years (City of Columbia) as opposed to 20 or more for photovoltaic cells. Factoring in any government incentives, the payback time could be far less. Direct solar power for automobiles seems extremely unlikely. However, if the current development of plug-in electric automobiles continues apace, solar energy on the grid may end up powering these vehicles. The Economics of Solar Power Without government subsidy, solar is not yet a competitive form a hostel, shows solar panels that of energy. Numerous sources agree that currently, ? in direct supply power and hot water on the roof of his building in competition with electricity generated from fossil fuels, solar Shanghai 01 March 2006. MARK RALSTON/AFP/Getty cells almost always lose? (Derbyshire). Subsidies are needed. Images ? For the expansion of solar energy to be successful,? Greenpeace explains, ? there must be a clear commitment from governments? (3). Still, such subsidies are expected to be only temporary; solar advocates believe that as technology and economies of scale improve, solar will far outstrip fossil fuels in economic ompetitiveness. Solar advocates also point out that fossil fuels have long received government subsidies, that ? the oil and natural gas industries received substantial government aid during their early histories and continue to receive tax breaks for exploration, favorable terms for drilling leases on government land, and so forth? (Derbyshire). Bradford estimates that ? global government s upport is currently skewed toward the nuclear and fossil-fuel infrastructure, with about ten times as much money going to these conventional power sources as to all renewables combined? 172). Mr. Mingde Zhou, who manages ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 10 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? Because solar provides advantages that the economic laws of supply and demand, in a vacuum, do not account for, many governments choose to subsidize solar as a clean and renewable energy source. Conventional fossil fuels generate costs that the users do not pay for–what economists term externalities–that are shared by the wider community and may occur at a future time. Pollution is the most obvious of these, in the form of harming local air quality, and through generating greenhouse gasses. In addition, fossil fuels are a limited resource that will eventually run out; future generations may therefore ? pay? for our use of coal, oil, and natural gas today. The fact that we must deal with often unstable and unfriendly governments to attain fossil fuels is another reason to seek renewable options. Exclaims one solar advocate, ? although the investment is high, it is important to remember that the energy source, sunlight, is free. There are no annual fuel or pollution-control costs like those for coal, oil or nuclear power? (Zweibel). Job creation is another argument often put forward for solar power. Indeed ? green jobs? have been suggested as a major potential stimulus for the United States‘ faltering economy. Explains Bradford, ? installation jobs cannot be exported: they must remain in the locations where systems will be used. . . . These relatively highly paid, skilled jobs will help sustain an educated and prosperous middle class in any industrialized economy? 164). Green jobs are a major platform of the incoming Obama administration and are popular at the local level; ? States are clamoring for renewable energy projects such as wind farms and solar power plants because of the potential jobs they create, in addition to reducing global warming and increasing the countrys energy independence? (Yung). California solar companies say they plan to hire new workers in the next year. http://www. ibabuzz. c om/education/2008/04/14/dogreen-collar-jobs-promise-a-better-future-for-bayarea-youth/ To offset externalities, and increasingly to create green jobs, many governments subsidize solar and other renewable energy. These subsidies occur in several forms. Feed-in tariffs have been the most successful, notably in German. Feed-in tariffs require utilities or consumers to pay extra for solar energy on the grid; the money then goes to individuals who have installed solar. This system incentivizes not only solar installation, but installation of the most efficient solar possible. (Greenpeace 49) Cash rebates and tax deductions are other incentives used for solar energy: ? The most direct [incentives] are tax credits and rebates paid to owners of renewable energy facilities. . . . The production tax credit (PTC) is a per kilowatt-hour tax credit for energy generated by ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 11 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? qualified energy resources? (Derbyshire). These methods are bottom-up, and ? are usually supplemented by renewable portfolio standards (RPS) . . . a top-down incentive, requiring utilities to obtain some fraction of their energy from renewable sources? Derbyshire). Often used in the U. S. at a state level, RPS programs are attempts ? to set target percentages of renewables in their power-generation mix to be deployed by certain dates? (Bradford 182). RPS programs are an example of targets, which mandate certain measures by setting a cap or definite number. Perhaps the most famous targets were set by the Kyoto Treaty to limit carbon emissions. The go al of all these targets and subsidies is to make solar energy viable to stand on its own. To do so, greater efficiency is needed in converting sunlight into electricity. That day may be arriving; ? nexpensive cells with an efficiency of 20 per cent have become a commercial reality, while in the lab efficiencies are leaping forward still further? (Daviss). The Growth of Solar Energy The promise of solar power is seductive in being clean, virtually free once the technology is in place, and seemingly limitless. The initial investment for solar power may be high but after a few years you have virtually recovered the investment and thereafter pay nothing for the resource said Pradip Jayewardene, founder of the Solar Industries Association. (Samath) Location and circumstance play a huge role Solar Power. Worldwatch Institute. in deciding just how viable this promise is. ?Three factors—real unsubsidized PV system cost, insolation, and cost of grid electricity—determine the likelihood of market growth and maturation in different locations in the industrial world,? explains Bradford. (144) In theory, one should be able to balance factors to determine just when solar is cost-competitive in a particular area. A dark country with lots of access to cheap fossil fuel, such as Russia, for instance, would seem a poor candidate for solar, while a bright country with few natural resources would be an excellent candidate. As solar technology improves and fossil fuels become scarcer, solar power becomes viable in an increasing range of locations. In practice, the social values of a country also play an enormous role in when and how aggressively it adopts solar. Of course cost competitiveness is crucial for solar to continue to grow, and it is improving rapidly. According to Cambridge Energy Research Associates ? a kWh [kilowatt hour] of photoSource: Sawin, Janet. 2008. Another Sunny Year for ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 12 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? voltaic electricity cost 50 cents in 1995. That had fallen to 20 cents in 2005 and is still dropping? (Economist, Another silicon valley). With better competitiveness and increased environmental concern, solar power is spreading, so that ? over the past five years, annual global production of PV cells has increased nearly sevenfold? (Sawin). However leadership in the solar energy has been shifting: ? In previous years the manufacture of solar cells and modules was concentrated in three key areas – Europe, Japan and the United States.? (Greenpeace 18). The U. S. which had pioneered solar energy, fell behind Source: Sawin, Janet. 2008. Another Sunny Year for Japan in the 1990s, when that island nation, Solar Power. Worldwatch Institute. lacking local energy resources, pushed solar energy hard and became the global leader. This was largely because ? the Japanese residential market has some of the highest prices of grid electricity in the world—an average of twenty-one cents per kWh? (136). Where other energy is expensive solar energy is competitive. Recently, Europe, also facing high energy prices and greatly concerned about global warming, has become the solar energy leader: ? Europe—led by Germany—passed Japan to lead the world in PV manufacture, producing an estimated 1,063 megawatts of solar cells in 2007, up 56 percent over 2006? (Sawin). Meanwhile, U. S. share has lost ground, comparatively speaking; ? In the United States, cell production rose 48 percent to 266 megawatts. Although this represents a dramatic increase in production from the once world-leading U. S. solar industry, the nation‘s shares of global production and installations continued to fall in 2007? (Sawin). Germany now has the largest amount of solar energy in the world. The country has heavily subsidized solar energy, in the form of a feed-in tariff, so that ? the average annual growth rate between 2000 and 2005 was well over 40%? (Greenpeace 38). Indeed, with Gemanys subsidy, ? so many firms rushed to install solar panels in such profusion that the world ran short of the type of silicon used to make them. The price of silicon—and thus of solar panels—rose? (Economist, More Light). Ironically, Germany is an often overcast country and does not get as much out of each solar panel as sunnier locations would. Germany‘s subsidies are therefore an example of the law of unintended consequences, and of the care that should be taken in developing solar energy. ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 13 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? In the U. S. , solar activists complain of complacency: ? What we have lacked–and it really is unfortunate because these technologies were developed here–is a national energy policy that places a priority on establishing clean, sustainable, renewable energy as a mainstay of our energy portfolio? Woodside). California, however, remains notable for its emphases on renewable energy: ? Solar power generated in the state has grown from about 3 megawatts in 2000 Buerstadt, Germany: The roof of a warehouse, equipped with solar panels, May 13, 2005. The 50,000 square to 177 megawatts this year, a remarkable meter system with a capacity of 4. 5 megawatts per year 5,900% increase? (Jeff St . John). Yet conrepresents the largest roof based solar system worldwide. Photo by Ralph Orlowski/2005 Getty Images, Inc. tinued exponential growth is necessary for solar to become more than a mall player. Even with the recent surge, California still has ? only enough to meet about one-third of 1% of the states peak electricity needs? (Jeff St. John). California is doing better than most places, where solar remains a puny part of the total energy picture. Even though, ? solar energy today is recognized as clean and viable . . . it represents just 0. 1 percent of the total electricity market? (Wolgemuth). Yet solar is worth following closely for its trend of exponential growth, which is likely to continue or increase. Solar advocates foresee a surge in solar power similar to, but larger than, that currently happening with wind power. Bradford argues that, ? the transition to solar energy and electricity will happen much faster than most people imagine, faster even than most experts commonly predict? (14). Given the current energy picture, and renewed calls for green energy, jobs, and infrastructure, this may very well prove true. Yet the exact mix of technical, economic, and political factors needed to spur this kind of growth remains uncertain. We will have to wait to see if solar remains an exotic sideshow in the energy portfolio or heralds a bright new future for the planet. References Al Bawaba. 2008. Here Comes the Sun: Harnessing Solar Power as a Major Energy Source. Al Bawaba Reporters, January 16 Aldous, Scott. How Solar Cells Work. How Stuff Works. http://science. howstuffworks. com/solar-cell. htm Bradford, Travis. 2006. Solar Revolution: The Economic Transformation of the Global Energy Industry. Cambridge: MIT Canberra Times. 2007. More to do to help people go solar. Nov 16, p. 1 ProQuest Discovery Guides ttp://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 14 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? City of Columbia, Missouri. Solar Water Heating. http://www. gocolumbiamo. com/WaterandLight/Conservation/SolarWaterHeaters. php Derbyshire, Katherine. 2008. Public policy for engineers: solar industry depends on policymakers goodwill. Solid State Technology 51:8 (August), p. 24 Daviss, Bennett. 2007. Solar Power: The Futures Bright. Rachels Democracy and Health News. December 13 The Economist. 2008. Another silicon valley. June 21 The Economist. 2007. Bright Prospects. March 3 The Economist. 2008. Freezing the sun: A double blow for solar energy. June 28 The Economist. 2008. More light than heat: Bureaucratic meddling has harmed solar power. April 7. Energy Information Administration and Department of Energy. 2006. Solar Thermal and Photovoltaic Collector Manufacturing Activities 2006. http://www. eia. doe. gov/fuelrenewable. html Flavin, Christopher. 1995. Harnessing the Sun and Wind. USA Today Magazine, November 1 Greenpeace. 2006. Solar Generation: Solar energy for over one billion people and two million jobs by 2020. Hiserodt, Ed. Solar Power: Not the Brightest Idea. 2007. The New American, September 17 Lund, H. , R. Nilsen, O. Salomatova, D. Skare, E. Riisem. 2008. The History Highlight of Solar Sells [sic] (Photovoltaic Cells). Norwegian University of Science and Technology. http://org. ntnu. no/solarcells/pages/history. php National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Parabolic Trough Thermal Energy Storage Technology. http://www. nrel. gov/csp/troughnet/thermal_energy_storage. html National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 2008. Record Makes Thin-Film Solar Cell Competitive with Silicon Efficiency. http://www. rel. gov/news/press/2008/574. html Power Engineering International. 2008. Concentrating solar power starts to shine 16:6 (Jul/Aug) p. 25-27 Takahashi, Dean. 2008. Technology Review 111: 5 (Oct) p. 30 ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 15 Goffman: Why Not the Sun? St. John, Jeff. 2006. Let the sun shine on. Solar power booms in Californ ia, and more Central Valley customers are hopping aboard. The Fresno Bee, Jul 3, p. F1 Samath, Feizal. 2007. Solar power is the fastest growing energy resource in the world. NoticiasFinancieras. Jun 28, pg. 1 Sawin, Janet. 2008. Another Sunny Year for Solar Power. Worldwatch Institute. Solid State Technology. 2008. PV and IC industries converge. August 51:8, p. 12 Walsh, Bryan. 2008. Solar Power Hits Home. Time 172:7 (Aug 18), p. 52 Wolgemuth, Liz. 2008. Turning Sunshine Into Dollars; SunPowers efficient cells keep its solar prospects bright. U. S. News World Report, Jul 21 Woodside, Christine. 2007. Big is Beautiful. E: The Environmental Magazine. May 1. Youngester. com. 2008. Future of Solar Cells. http://technicalstudies. youngester. om/2008/06/future-of-solar-cells. html Yung, Katherine. 2008. DTE to invest billions in alternative energy: Utility boosts job-creating industry in state. McClatchy Tribune Business News, July 13 Zavis, Alexandra. 2008. Power-starved Iraq goes solar; At least for street lamps in Baghdad. Los Angeles Times, Jul 14, p. A. 4 Zweibel, Ken; Mason, James; Fthenakis, Vasilis. 2007. A Solar Grand Plan. Rachels Democracy and Hea lth News. December 20 ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www. csa. com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main. php Released December 2008 16